Power and
Discourse
Discourse
In broadest sense, discourse anything written, said or communicated using
signs
Specifically: writing in an area of technical knowledge, ie, areas
in which there are specialists, specialized or technical knowledge and
specialized or technical vocabulary
Each era will define its own discourses, and these definitions may
vary (even radically) overtime
Technical specialists work together to establish their field &
its dominant ideas and have ever-increasing power over people
- And these discourses have shaped the structure of society
- consider, for example, the discourse on madness
- it’s produced by psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers,
and other experts
- it defines the roles of madness--what it is, who has it, how to
address it . . .
- and so defines the roles of normalcy that structure society
A Discourse on Language
was his inaugural lecture at the Collège de France, where he was
appointed in 1970
serves as a kind of introductory essay for the work he proposed to
do, which appears later as The
Archaeology of Knowledge
- An explanation of his own aims and methods
Foucault writes that he would like "freed from the obligation
to begin." Instead, "speech would proceed from me, while I stood
in its path-a slender gap-the point of its possible disappearance"
(215).
FOUCAULT is commenting here on two of central
concepts, "discourse" and "the author function."
Heidegger had said that "language speaks through us," but FOUCAULT
will suggest that discourses provide the limits to what can and can't be
said or heard.
The author function is what FOUCAULT prefers to the
romantic, humanist, modern notion of the author.
For instance, we wouldn't consider a grocery list by
Vonnegut to be "authored" by him.
So it's not the "author" that produces the
oeuvre but rather the oeuvre that produces the author or the author
function.
So, in these opening paragraphs, FOUCAULT is
illustrating the way in which this particular "discourse" on
language is capable of producing him as author.
- In more general terms for FOUCAULT it is discourse as
a medium for power that produces subjects or, as he puts it,
"speaking subjects," which, for him, are the only kind there
are.
Foucault’s
Hypothesis
- in every society the production of discourse is at once
- controlled,
- selected,
- organized and
- redistributed
according to a certain number of procedures, whose role is
"to avert its powers and its dangers, to cope with chance events, to
evade its ponderous, awesome materiality."
Discourse is controlled in order to have its transformative
potential checked, in order to limit the occurrence of the unexpected, and
to limit the substance of discourse as an event in itselFoucault
- Discourse is controlled externally through the rules of exclusion,
which include prohibition.
The Control of
Discourse
Prohibition
- We know perfectly well that we are not free to say just anything,
when we like or where we like.
- There are three types of prohibition:
- objects (what can be spoken of)
- ritual (where and how one may speak), and
- the privileged or exclusive right to speak of certain subjects
(who may speak).
The Control of Discourse
These prohibitions interrelate, reinforce and
complement each other, forming a complex web, continually subject to
modification.
The areas most tightly woven today are politics
& sexuality.
The prohibitions surrounding speech reveal its links
with desire and power.
The opposition
of reason and madness
· old
division, which used to count mad speech either as wholly irrational, therefore
devoid of truth, or revealing a hidden rationality, therefore almost
preternaturally true, is still here, but proceeds along different
lines--institutions, psychiatrists, etc. The psychiatrist listens to speech
invested with desire, crediting itself--for its greater exaltation or its
greater anguish--with terrible powers.
The opposition
between true and false.
That helps to show the "rules of
exclusion" that govern discourses and do not-cannot-recognize a whole
range of thoughts or speech that do not conform in terms of object, ritual, or
right to speak.
Will to truth - the final rule of exclusion,
and one becoming increasingly central is the division into true and false.
§ The
will to truth, a changing system of inclusion into truthfulness that governs
scope and use of knowledge.
§ The
will to knowledge determines what truth is and what kind of truth is important.
§ Foucault
documents the shift from truth being manifest in the speaker to being manifests
in the content of speech and the subjects to be discussed.
§ The
will to truth exerts constant pressure on discourse but yet is invisible.
Internal
Systems
Discourse employs a system of internal rules dealing with
classification, ordering, and distribution in the control of events and
chance. Although Foucault calls them rules, they are best understood as
forms.
- One such rule is commentary.
i.
Commentary, commenting on a primary text,
allows new discourse while controlling the content of the discourse.
ii.
Foucault discusses the myths and stories that
color or shape our national discourses; at the same time, the discourse shapes
the ways in which we understand the stories, the "commentary" on the
seminal stories like The Odyssey, for
instance.
iii.
Ultimately commentary is nothing but
recitation as commentators are merely announcing what has already been stated,
albeit less explicitly, in the primary text.
for the control & delimitation of discourse
Here, discourse exercises its own control, rules
regarding principles of classification, ordering and distribution. It is as
though we were now involved in the mastery of another dimension of discourse:
that of events and chance.
Internal
Systems
- Another such rule is
the author.
i.
The author also is directed at chance events
by imposing the limit of individuality (the author’s ‘I’).
ii.
While the function of the scientific author
as an index of truthfulness has declined over time, the author is increasingly
important in literature.
iii.
Thus the literary author is lead to consider
what to write, less in relation to the individual work under construction, but
instead in relation to an oeuvre, or life’s work.
- The principle does not deny the existence of individuals who
write, however when they write, they put on the author-function, and texts
are organized respectively around the function, not the individual.
Disciplines
- Another mechanism of
control internal to discourse is the disciplines.
- Disciplines are anonymous (unlike author) and not repetitious
(unlike commentary).
- They constitute a field in which there is a shared set of
definitions, methods, and/or subject matter.
- Discourse is also controlled by rules governing “the conditions
under which discourse may be employed.”
- Such rules limit access to discourse.
o
Furthermore, only some speaking
subjects may deploy certain discourses: "none may enter into discourse on
a specific subject unless he has satisfied certain conditions or if he is not,
from the outset, qualified to do so.
Conditions of
Deployment
Conditions under which discourse can be employed
Who is qualified to enter into the discourse on a specific
subject?
Not all areas of discourse are equally open &
penetrable.
Moreover, exchange and communication probably cannot
operate independently of complex but restrictive systems.
1.
Ritual defines the qualifications
and role of the speaker, lays down the gestures to be made, the behavior,
circumstances and a whole range of signs, and the supposed or imposed
significance of the words, their effect on those addressed, the limitation of
their constraining validity.
2.
Fellowship of
discourse,
whose function is to preserve or to reproduce discourse, but in order that it
should circulate within a closed community, according to strict regulations,
without those in possession being dispossessed by this very distribution. It
functions through various schema of exclusivity and disclosure.
3.
Doctrine
(religious, political, philosophical, etc)
Doctrine is
opposed to fellowship of discourse, which limits class of speakers
4.
Education: the
social appropriation of discourse
------Most
of the time these four conditions are linked together, constituting great
edifices that distribute speakers among the different types of discourse, and
which appropriate those types of discourse to certain categories of subject
...these are the main rules for the subjection of discourse.
Philosophical
Themes
- conforming to & reinforcing the activity of limitation and
exclusion: i.e. eliding the reality of discourse
1. The theme of the founding subject
--------The
task of the founding subject is to animate the empty forms of language with his
objectives; through the thickness and inertia of empty things, he grasps
intuitively the meanings lying within them.
-------conforming to & reinforcing the activity of limitation and
exclusion: i.e. eliding the reality of discourse
2. The theme of originating experience
(the
opposing theme to 1.)
-------This asserts, in the case of experience, that even before it could
be grasped in the form of a cogito, prior significations, in some ways already
spoken, were circulating in the world. i.e. there is meaning out there which we
find
3. The theme of universal mediation
------The
logos is already discourse, or things and events which insensibly become
discourse in the unfolding of essential secrets.
The result of any of these is that discourse is seen
only as an activity, or writing
1.
Reading
2.
or exchange
3.
involving only and exchange of signs.
Discourse in placing itself as the signified of a
signifier, disappears itselFoucault
Elucidation of
Discourse
- Logophobia
The apparent supremacy given discourse in our culture masks a fear;
all our forms of discourse serve to control it, to relieve its richness
of its most dangerous elements; to organize its disorder.
This logophobia is a fear of the mass of spoken things, the
possibility of errant, unrestrained discourse.
o
Decisions in
order to erase logophobia
§ In
order to analyze the conditions of this fear, we need to resolve ourselves to
accept three conditions, which our current thinking rather tends to resist, and
which belong to the three groups of function Foucault has just mentioned:
1. to
question our will to truth;
2. to
restore to discourse its character as an event;
3. to
abolish the sovereignty of the signifier.
Methodological
Demands
We are a civilization absolutely dependent on
discourse-logophilia seems to define us (228).
But FOUCAULT suggests that behind the logophilia is
logophobia, a fear that, without all these discursive "taboos, . . .
barriers, thresholds and limits," discourse might be dangerous and
uncontrollable-a fear "of everything that could possibly be violent,
discontinuous, querulous, disordered even and perilous in it [discourse],
of the incessant, disorderly buzzing of discourse" (228, 229).
To counter this
fear (and, presumably, our subject to disciplines and discourses), we must
"question our will to truth; . . . restore to discourse its character
as an event; . . . [and] abolish the sovereignty of the signifier"
(229). We can do this through these tasks:
The principle of
reversal
Reversal:
rather than thinking we can identify the source of a discourse and its principles,
we must rather "recognize the negative activity of the cut-out and
rarefaction of discourse.”
The principle of
discontinuity
Discontinuity:
we must not imagine that as an alternative to the negative activity of
discourse there is some kind of place of "limitless discourse,
continuous and silent, repressed and driven back" which it is our
task to restore. Rather, we must recognize discourse as a
"discontinuous activity."
The principle of
specificity
Specificity:
we must not imagine that we can make sense of or decipher a particular
discourse by a "prior system of significations" that is more
true to reality, one that will reveal all and make sense of everything;
the world does not present us with "a legible face." Rather, discourse
is "a violence that we do to things, or, at all events, . . . a
practice we impose upon them.”
The principle of
exteriority
Exteriority:
there is no center, no core, no heart of a discourse where true meaning
resides. Rather, discourses must be understood by their "external
conditions of existence."
- Through the mechanisms and rules just described, the true nature
of discourse is concealed. “It would have appeared to have ensured that to
discourse should appear merely as a certain interjection between speaking
and thinking” (p. 227).
i.
Discourse is an event imbued with power.
ii.
Accordingly, discourse is afforded its
particular status and meaning because it is feared and must be controlled.
- Therefore, in order to undertake analysis of the discourse, one
must:
iv.
question the will to truth
v.
restore to discourse its character as an
event
vi.
dispense with the belief that meaning is
discovered and not created.
More about Foucault:
Recommended books by and on Foucault: